This guide was compiled over the course of many years, starting at the unapósiem during my time as a scholar of “Usaq Studies” [sic], and expanded during my time on continent and thereafter. None of this would be possible without the patient and tireless support of my friend and guide Juko, as well as innumerable other Usaq people and other native Obōzhū speakers.
I have been asked by Juko to mention that this guide is inaccurate in many respects and I dishonor the holy language of the Usaul with my fumbling. Still, both he and I agree that this guide will do more good than harm in bridging our peoples and cultures, and so I present it to you here. All credit goes to my guides and teachers, and all errors are my own.
Obōzhū was not written until well after Imperial explorers made landfall on the continent Oburu. When it is written, it’s generally written in an abugida specifically devised for it, but here in this guide is transliterated to our usual alphabet on the principle that learning the grammar as well as the abugida of the language at the same time would be prohibitive.
As a result of using transliterated syllabics, the spellings of words are perfectly regular – there is no canonical spelling per se, only the sounds which correspond to syllabic symbols, which in turn correspond to letters. So the beginning student of Obōzhū will be happy to learn that they can each letter or diphthong has one, and only one, pronunciation.
| Letter(s) | Pronunciation |
|---|---|
| a | /æ/ |
| ā | /eɪ/ |
| o | /ɑː/ |
| ō | /oʊ/ |
| u | /ʌ/ |
| ū | /u:/ |
| b | /b/ |
| f | /f/ |
| s | /s/ |
| l | /ʟ/ |
| zh | /ʒ/ |
| th | /ð/ |
| r | /ɽ/ |
| q | /q/ |
| y | /j/ |
| g | /ɢ/ |
| k | /k/ |
| nj | /ⁿdʒ/ |
| nd | /ⁿd/ |
Note on vowel pairs: Obōzhū has many words in which vowels are paired like “oathog” or “qusnjoul.” In all cases the paired vowels are pronounced as usual, which is to say the sounds are not combined.
Obōzhū is agglutinative. That means that the basic units of meaning are roots and affixes, instead of words.
Roots involve basic vocabulary and always appear at the beginning of words in Obōzhū.
Here are some examples:
| suku- | to eat |
| oathog- | to leave |
| labug | tent |
Affixes are attached to the end of roots and other affixes. They can never begin a word. Here are three simple affixes:
| -lanjo | I |
| -lol | you |
| -lag | he/she/it |
Roots and affixes cannot be used on their own. Instead words are built in Obōzhū by attaching one or more affixes to a root. Remember that in most cases, the root is the base of the word and appears at the beginning.
If we add different affixes to the same root, we get different meanings:
| sukuranjo | I (am) eat(ing) |
| sukurol | you (are) eat(ing) |
| sukurag | he/she/it (is) eat(s/ing) |
In Premusteio the most basic form of a verb is always discontinuous. For example “I eat” is the basic first person present tense; it’s a discrete action that is implied to stop when it completes. To make it continuous, or ongoing, you might say “I am eating.” It’s also worth noting that in this gerund form the verb functions as either a noun or an adjective describing a state of being. In this sense “I am eating” is roughly equivalent to “I am an eater.” In other words, grammatically speaking, “eating” is a property of “I,” not just an action that “I” is taking.
Obōzhū is the opposite. The simplest form of the verb–eg. sukuranjo–is continuous by default. If you want to talk about a discrete action that has stopped now, you have to mark the verb with a discontinuous affix -o-.
| sukuranjo | I am eating / I am an eater |
| sukuoranjo | I eat |
Note: the continuous form means either or both of:
So you could translate the basic present as “I am an eater,” plus the first construction implies that from that moment forward I will always have eaten whatever I ate (which is correct, but it goes without saying in Premusteio).
Here’s something tricky for imperial speakers: the discontinuous construction sukuoranjo implies that after taking the action of eating, I will not have eaten whatever I ate–ie. I will now be in a state unaffected by the eating I just did. It would be a very strange thing to say deliberately, but luckily this example is innocuous and most Obōzhū speakers (at least in the border zones) would understand what you meant.
Here is a less innocuous example:
| uthuzhouranjo Obōzhū | I am teaching you Obōzhū / I am your Obōzhū teacher |
| buthukuranjo | I am trading [with you] |
The first implies that you will know Obōzhū after being taught. On the other hand, uthuzhōranjo Obōzhū is discontinuous so its meaning is roughly similar: “I teach you Obōzhū.” But it also implies that you will not retain what I have taught. Many subtle insults in Obōzhū depend on this construction.
A common sophomore error that native Premusteio speakers make is overuse of the discontinuous form–in trying to phrase sentences carefully the way they would be said in the empire, they inadvertently imply nonsense like “I will eat and then not have eaten.” Or like the case of buthukuoranjo imply a subtle insult or threat like “I will trade with you and then the trade will not have happened” (ie. “I am going to rob or cheat you”).
On the other hand sophomore students of Premustieo will generally lean on the gerund construction in places where an imperial native speaker would use what in imperial language would be the basic, discontinuous form. The reason is that beginners don’t realize the basic form doesn’t imply continuity, but when they come to understand the language well enough, not speaking in a “continuous” way feels often nonsensical, insulting, or threatening. For example they might say “I am sorrying” or “I am being sorry,” which parallels the basic Obōzhū apology construction, because “I am sorry”–the basic form in Premusteio and the discontinuous form in Obōzhū–is similar to the insult “sorry not sorry.”
So, the default Obōzhū mode of expression describes states of being whereas the default mode of Premusteio describes discrete actions. Almost everyone fluent in both languages eventually becomes comfortable with the subtleties, but this basic difference is the source of perhaps the most discomfort and misunderstanding in translation.
And if we throw in other affixes, we can change the meaning again. -thoag- is an affix that indicates that something happened in the past:
| sukuthoaglanjo | I ate |
| sukuthoaglol | you ate |
| sukuthoaglag | he/she/it ate |
In Obōzhū very long words can be put together using many affixes. We end up with single words that would take an entire sentence to say in English.
In Obōzhū, we indicate who is performing an action by using an affix that appears (usually) at the very end of a verb:
| loqaranjo | I see |
In the above word, loqa- describes the action of seeing and the affix –ranjo describes who is seeing.
By using different affixes, we can talk about different people doing the same action:
| sukuranjo | I eat |
| sukurol | you eat |
| sukurag | he/she/it eats |
| sukurayaq | the two of us eat |
| sukurayal | we eat (3+) |
| sukurazhug | you two eat |
| sukurazhu | y’all eat (3+) |
| sukurāq | the two of them eat |
| sukuraq | they eat (3+) |
The affixes highlighted above can be added to any root that ends in a vowel. Remember Obōzhū has three vowels o, u and a.
If the root ends in any other letter, we change the r that begins each of these affixes to l:
| agothundо̄glanjo | I read |
| zhusuqlag | he / she sleeps |
Obōzhū has a series of affixes that are used just for asking questions. To ask a question, we add one of these affixes to the end of a verb. The affix that is used changes depending on who the subject of the verb is.
| sukuful | Are you eating? |
| sukufo | Is he/she eating? |
The following affixes are used with roots that end in vowels:
| laquzhu | to understand |
| laquzhufanjo? | Do I understand? |
| laquzhuful? | Do you understand? |
| laquzhufo? | Does he/she understand? |
| laquzhufusaq? | Do we(2) understand? |
| laquzhufulo? | Do we(3+) understand? |
| laquzhufuzhug? | Do you(2) understand? |
| laquzhufuzhu? | Do you(3+) understand? |
| laquzhufoq? | Do they(2) understand? |
| laquzhufol? | Do they(3+) understand? |
If you want to add these affixes to a root ending in -g, you use the same endings as above, replacing the f with a g.
| uzhug | to come in |
| uzhugganjo? | Am I coming in? |
| uzhuggul? | Are you coming in? |
| uzhuggo? | Is he/she coming in? |
| uzhuggusaq? | Are we(2) coming in? |
| uzhuggulo? | Are we(3+) coming in? |
| uzhugguzhug? | Are you(2) coming in? |
| uzhugguzhu? | Are you(3+) coming in? |
| uzhuggoq? | Are they(2) coming in? |
| uzhuggol? | Are they(3+) coming in? |
If the verb ends in any other consonant, you do the following:
As an example, let’s use the verb zhusuq- meaning to sleep. Change the final consonant to -b before these endings:
| zhusubbanjo? | Am I sleeping? |
| zhusubbul? | Are you sleeping? |
| zhusubbo? | Is he/she sleeping? |
| zhusubbusaq? | Are we(2) sleeping? |
| zhusubbulo? | Are we(3+) sleeping? |
| zhusubbuzhug? | Are you(2) sleeping? |
| zhusubbuzhu? | Are you(3+) sleeping? |
| zhusubboq? | Are they(2) sleeping? |
| zhusubbol? | Are they(3+) sleeping? |
Obōzhū has personal pronouns although they aren’t used as much as in English for reasons that will be explained below.
We’ll start with the simplest personal pronouns:
| afonjo | I |
| afoyaq | we; us(2) |
| afoyal | we; us(3) |
| ufful | you(1) |
| uthulzhuq | you(2) |
| uthulzhu | you(3+) |
It is important to remember that Obōzhū verbs always indicate who is doing the action through the verb ending:
| sukuranjo | I eat |
| zhusuqlag | she sleeps |
| oathoglaq | they leave |
Because the verb ending already tells us who is doing an action, personal pronouns are redundant and aren’t normally used. Where personal pronouns are used is when:
| Gosausnjullanjo, uffuthu? | I am fine, what about you? |
| afonjo? | (who) me? |
| afonjotha gosausnjullanjo | I (too) am fine. |
Notice above the use of two little affixes : -thu and -tha that can be tacked on to the end of the pronouns.
-thu is used in conversation when you want to change the person or object you are talking about:
| ufful + thu = uffuthu? | What about you(1)? |
| afonjo + thu = afonjothu? | What about me? |
-tha is an affix that is added to a personal pronoun when you want to re-state something that has already been said.
| auknjoglanjo | I am sleepy |
| afonjotha, auknjoglanjo | I, too, am sleepy |
When -thu and -tha are added to personal pronouns ending in a consonant, they change the final consonants to th:
| uthulzhuq + thu = uthulzhuthu | What about you (2)? |
| ufful + tha = uffumtha | you, as well |
Double th is most often written with a stop between them: th to differentiate the sounds. A native speaker does not combine these sounds, unless they are from the eastern wilds. Most will insert a small
Obōzhū differentiates between an event will happen in the immediate future, later the same day or farther in the future.
-thonjo- is the affix used for an event in the immediate future. -thonjo- can be attached directly to a root that ends in a vowel. When attached to a root ending in a consonant, it deletes the final consonant:
| suku + thonjo + ranjo | sukuthonjoranjo | I will eat / I am about to eat |
| athandu oathog + thonjo + rag | athandu oathothonjorag | He/she is going to leave |
To talk about event that will happen later the same day, insert the affix -suog- between the verb and the subject ending:
| zhaful? | What are you doing? |
| zhasuoggul | What will you be doing? |
| sukuranjo | I am eating |
| sukusuoglanjo | I will be eating |
When -suog- is added to a root that ends in -g, the g changes to k.
| qо̄bulag + suog + lanjo | qо̄bulaksuoglanjo | I will be drinking coffee |
When -suog- is added to a root ending in -q it changes the final q to s:
| buzhaq + suog + lag | buzhassuoglag | He/she is going to walk |
-thōg- is an affix used for events that will be happening the next day or further into the future.
If -thōg- is added to a stem that ends in a consonant, it deletes the last consonant.
| uggosourog + suog + lanjo | uggosouroksuoglanjo | I am going to work (later today) |
| uggosourog + thōg + lanjo | uggosourothōglanjo | I will be working (sometime in the future) |
| loqasuoglayal | We will see you soon! |
| loqathōglayal | We will see you later! |
-kolōg- is an affix that is used to describe actions that have happened in the immediate past (within the hour).
| uzhukolōglag | He/she just came in |
| luqukolōglayal | We just arrived |
-ggoa- is an affix that is used to describe actions that have happened earlier in the day.
| agо̄thoggoarag | He/she called earlier today |
| onjukkoggoaranjo | I went home earlier today |
-thoag- is used to describe actions that have happened yesterday or in the not too distant past.
| ubbolzhog lallathuothoagrag | Yesterday, he went hunting |
| logguathoaglandu guqothoagrag | Last month she went on a spirit quest |
Note that when any of the above affixes are added to a root ending in a consonant, they delete the final consonant.
Important: Obōzhū speakers don’t always use these affixes to talk about events in the past. At times you have to rely on context of the conversation to know whether a verb like “sukurag” refers to an event right now or in the past.
Verbs involving motion often refer to an event in the past when they are combined with basic subject endings (-ranjo/-lanjo, -rol/-lol, -rag/-lag, etc.):
| luquglol? | Did you arrive/make it here ok? |
Obōzhū expresses the negative by inserting the affix −njul− just before the subject of the verb:
| logo + njul + lanjo | logonjullanjo | I am not tired |
| gou + ggoa + njul + laq | gouggoanjullaq | They did not come |
When −njul− is added to a root that ends in a consonant, it deletes the final consonant:
| gafuozhaq + njul + lag | gafuozhanjullag | He/she is not happy |
Here are some more examples of how the negative is used:
| laquzhuranjo | I understand |
| laquzhunjullanjo | I don’t understand |
| goulayal | We are coming |
| gounjullayal | We are not coming |
-zhāg is added to root to express the idea of
Examples:
| Aufululal | [Empire Language] |
| Aufululazhānjafūl | Do you speak [Empire Language]? |
| undndaq | milk |
| undndathuzhānjafūl? | Do you take milk? |
| gonjolo | to rise or jump into the air |
| gonjolozhāg | bird |
Some notes:
First: -zhāg is often followed by the verb -nja- which means “to be”.
| zhaqog + thu + zhāg + nja + ful | zhaqothuzhānjaful? |
| sugar + (change person or object you’re talking about) + (habitual case) + (to be) + (do you(1)…?) | Do you take sugar? |
Second: When using -zhāg in the third person (it, he, she, they), the verb -nja- is dropped as a shortcut:
| Obōzhūzhāg | An Obōzhū speaker |
| Obōzhūzhāl | people who speak Obōzhū |
Third: When -zhāg is added to a stem that ends in a consonant, it deletes that consonant:
| ndugzhag + zhāg | ndugzhazhāg | someone who sews |
-lag- is an affix that appears in the middle of Obōzhū words following a noun root. It should not be confused with the verb ending -lag (meaning he/she/it).
-lag- is attached to a noun to indicate:
Either, something that one eats or drinks
| solzhundusuglaglag | He/she eats seal meat |
| lūlaglayal | We(3+) are drinking tea |
Or, something that one is using
| anduoglaglāq | the two of them are boating |
| qōbulagrandoful | |
| coffee + (consumptive) + (wanting) + (do you…?) | Do you want some coffee? |
Watch out for the root undug- which can mean either the noun “water” or the verb “to drink”. If you want to ask someone if they would like some water, do not use the affix –lag- with the root undug-. The correct way to ask the question is:
| undug + rando + ful | undukandoful |
| water + want + do you…? | Do you want to drink (some water)? |
| undukandoranjo | I want to drink some water |
| unduglag | He is drinking water |
Let’s look at the verb -rando-. This is a common affix used to express to want.
Because -rando- is an affix, it must be added to a root. uthoa- is a root meaning to come along.
| uthoarandofo? | Does he/she want to come along? |
| ū, uthoarandorag | Yes, he/she wants to come along |
When the root ends with a vowel, -rando- is used.
When a root ends with a g the k replaces the r, changing the affix to -kando-.
| qōbulag | to have coffee |
| qōbulagkandoful | Do you want some coffee? |
| ū, qōbulagkandoranjo | Yes, I want to have some coffee |
If -rando- is added to a root ending in q, the affix becomes -jando-:
| zhusuq | to sleep |
| zhusujandofuzhu? | Do you (3+) want to sleep? |
| ū, zhusujandorayal | Yes, we want to sleep |
Many Usaq group and organization names end with the affix qqal. Among its various meanings, qqal is used to designate a named group.
Many group names also include the -thukuru- affix. It is used to talk about a particular thing that a person is involved with or working on. -thukuru deletes any consonant that appears immediately before it.
| qūsoarog | money |
| qūsoarothukuru | person who deals with money |
| qūsoarothukuruqqal | a group of people who deal with money |
| utha | house, building |
| uthathukuruqqal | group of people concerned with buildings, a construction company |
-su is an affix that is added to the end of a noun and is translated as “in” or “at” in English.
So, to the question:
| sondu uggosourogbul? | Where do you work? |
| uthathukuruqqalsu uggosouroglanjo | I work at a construction company |
Note that according to the rules of Obōzhū pronunciation, when the affix -su is added to a root ending in -l, the final -l becomes an -s sound.
| Spelling | Pronunciation |
|---|---|
| uthathukuruqqalsu | uthathukuruqqassu |
The affix -logog- is used to express the English there is / there are. It is added to the end of nouns and must be followed by a subject ending:
| qōbulalogoggo? | Is there coffee? (Literally: It is coffee?) |
When we want to say “there is…”, Obōzhū speakers avoid the construction -logoglag, and use the affix -lothuq instead:
| ū, qōbulalothuq | Yes, there is coffee |
Note that -lothuq is never used in a negative sentence. Instead -logog- + -njul- + lag is used.
| qōbulogosnjullag | There is no coffee |
-logog- deletes final consonants of any nouns it is added to:
| boubbōg | paper |
| boubbōlogoggo? | Is there any paper? |
| ū, boubbōlothuq | Yes, there is paper |
| о̄yyo, boubbōlogognjullag | No, there is no paper |
If you want to talk about having something in your possession, you add the affix -gog- directly to the end of a noun:
| atha + gog + gul? | athagoggul? | Do have an atha (knife)? |
| atha + gog + lanjo | athagoglanjo | I have an atha |
When -gog- is added to a noun ending in a consonant, it deletes the final consonant:
| anduq + gog + go | andugoggo? | Does he have a beard? |
Watch out for singular nouns that end in -l. Many of them add an -u before being put together with affixes:
| lulukoal + u + gog + lanjo | lulukoalugoglanjo | I have a pen |
If you want to talk about not having something, remember that both -gog- and -njul- delete any consonant that appears immediately before them:
| anduq + gog + njul + lag | |
| andugonjullag | He doesn’t have a beard |
When we want to say “he or she has something”, Obōzhū speakers avoid the construction -goglag, and use the affix -thuq instead:
| sathuogoggo? | Does he have a wife? |
| ū, sathuothuq | Yes, he has a wife |
Note that when -thuq is added to a root ending in a consonant, it deletes the final consonant:
| sathuog + thuq | sathuogothuq |
Note, too, that -thuq is not used to make a negative sentence:
| sathuogonjulag | He does not have a wife |
Obōzhū uses different endings to distinguish between two of something and more than two of something:
| ndola | one door |
| ndolāq | (two) doors |
| ndolaul | (3+) doors |
The dual form is used to talk about two of a particular object. You can recognize the dual form as any noun that ends in a long vowel, followed by a -q.
| safaro | cloud |
| safarо̄q | (two) clouds |
If the object ends in a -l, add the ending -ūq:
| agо̄thoal | messenger |
| agо̄thoalūq | (two) messengers |
if it ends in any consonant other than -l, delete the last consonant, make the last vowel long, and add -q:
| qonduq | boot |
| qondūq | (two) boots |
| gokozhoarog | counting loop |
| gokozhoarōq | (two) counting loops |
So if you drop the final consonant and find you already have a long vowel at the end, just add -q:
| gokozhoarokothōg | small, women’s backpack |
| gokozhoarokothōq | (two) small, women’s backpacks |
In Obōzhū, the plural is used to talk about more than two of any noun:
| usaq | person |
| usaul | people (3+) |
The plural form always ends in -l. Here are some instructions on changing a noun from its singular form to the plural:
If the noun ends in a vowel, add -ul:
| uthuzhouru | teacher |
| uthuzhourūl | teachers (3+) |
If the noun ends in l, just add -ūl:
| agо̄thoal | messenger |
| agо̄thoalūl | messengers (3+) |
If the object ends in any other consonant, delete the last consonant, and add -ul:
| ugothaq | fish |
| ugothaul | fish (3+) |
If you delete the last consonant, and find that you already have a long vowel, just add -l:
| agōthoalukothōg | talking stick |
| agōthoalukothōl | talking sticks (3+) |
-ndūl- is a verb meaning to be somewhere.
| uthandūllag | He/she is in the house |
| Rothasoundūllayal | We (3+) are in the northern capital city |
-ndūl- deletes any consonant that appears immediately before it:
| zhukthaog | shed |
| zhukthaondūllal | They (3+) are in the shed |
| bathо̄kfuq | living room |
| bathо̄kfundūllāq | They (2) are in the living room |
-ndūl- also shows up in questions:
| sondūlbul | Where are you? |
| sondūlbo | Where is he/she/it? |
-ndāg- is a verb meaning to go or to head toward a place.
| uthandāglanjo | I am going to the house |
-ndūsnjо̄g- is another verb, meaning to come from.
| Bossuglāndūsnjо̄glal | They are coming from Bossuglāg (the name of a particular city) |
-ndāg- and -ndūsnjо̄g- are added directly to root ending in vowels.
| uthandūsnjо̄glal | they are coming from the house |
When they are added to a root ending in -g or -q they delete the final letter:
| Gonjolozhāg | Bird of Prey (name of ship) |
| Gonjolozhāndūsnjо̄glag | He / she is coming from the Bird of Prey |
| uthussuofuq | school |
| uthussuofundāglanjo | I am going to the school |
The handy affix -roglag- is used to talk about going somewhere for a specific purpose. It has several forms depending on the last letter of the root it is attached to.
Following roots ending in vowels, use -roglag-
| suku | to eat |
| sukuroglaglanjo | I am going (somewhere) to eat |
| qolundo | to meet |
| qolundoroglaglayal | We are going to a meeting |
Follow roots ending in -g use -kuog-
| busnjaog | to play |
| busnjaokuoglag | he/she is going somewhere to play |
| guqog | to rest |
| Sāndal guqokuoglag | he/she is going to Sāq for a holiday |
| bathо̄g | to visit |
| bathо̄kuoglanjo | I am going to visit |
Follow roots ending in -q use -yuog-
| zhusuq | to sleep |
| zhusuyuoglal | They are going (somewhere) to sleep |
Obōzhū has three handy affixes for describing where you are, where you are going, or where you are coming from. They follow a similar pattern.
| ndu | at / in |
| ndul | from |
| ndal | to |
| Rotha | Rotha (city) |
| Rothandu | in Rotha |
| Rothandul | from Rotha |
| Rothandal | to Rotha |
(Rotha is short for Rothasou; Usaq people have a habit of shortening place names.)
When -ndu, -ndul, & -ndal are added to stems ending in -g, they change final -g to -k:
| Gakthaglag | Gakthaglag (city) |
| Gakthaglakndul | from Gakthaglag |
| Gakthaglakndal | to Gakthaglag |
(Most Usaq would call this city “Gaktha” in normal conversation)
and they delete all other final consonants:
| Uqbuokraq | Uqbuokraq (city) |
| uqbuokrandul | from Uqbuokraq |
| uqbuokrandal | to Uqbuokraq |
(Normally said “Uqbuo”)
| Sasofaol | the country / land |
| Sasofaondul | from the country |
| Sasofaondal | to the country |
The above affixes have a plural form -su, -sul, & -sal
| qusnjog | hill |
| qusnjoksu | in the hills |
| qusnjoksul | from the hills |
| qusnjoksal | to the hills |
We can use these affixes when answering the following questions:
| Sondūbbul? | Where are you? |
| othoffundu | at the office |
| Sondasnjoggul? | Where are you going? |
| Zhosuquthaokndal | to Zhosu[quthaog] (city) |
| Soqunjо̄ggul? | Where are you coming from? |
| afollussul | from our place |
Usaq people tend to shorten the names of cities and places. The general rule is to stop at the second vowel sound of the place name, but sometimes native speakers will add the next consonant as well:
| Zhosuquthaog | Zhosu or Zhosuq |
Unless the next consonant is either -k or -g, then it is never added.
The exception to this rule is the wilderness region of Agzhaglāg which is always shortened to Agzhag, with a -g at the end.
If you choose not to shorten it, you will sound formal, or foreign.
There is a little trick in dealing with the names of towns and cities, in that several are considered plural, instead of singular:
| Singular | Common | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| Zhosuquthaog | Zhosu | (Archaic) |
| Qundukal | Qundu | Heel |
| Gondosullaog | Gondo | where the river widens |
| Agzhaglāg | Agzhag | lots of fat (Archaic) |
| Gakthaglag | Gaktha | the place of moving water |
| Plural | Common | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| Ugothaul | Ugo[th] | Fish(es) |
| Qusnjoul | Qusnjou | Mountains |
| Soarо̄l | Soarо̄ | (Archaic) |
| Okfuol | Okfuo | Whales |
| Zhothūl | Zhoth | Large, flat islands |
This affects what affix we can use with them. For the singular place names, we use -ndu, -ndul, & -ndal. For the plural place names we have to use -su, -sul, & -sal:
| Sondūbbul? | Where are you? |
| Zhosundu | in Zhosu |
| Ugothsu | in Ugoth |
| Sondānjoggul | Where are you going? |
| Uqbuondul | to Uqbuo |
| Zhothsul | to Zhoth |
| Soqunjо̄ggul? | Where are you coming from? |
| Agzhagndal | from Agzhag |
| Qusnjousal | from Qusnjou |
-zhundo- is used to describe the state that one finds oneself after a certain action has been completed. Compare the following examples:
| lallathuoglag | He/she goes hunting |
| lallathuogzhundorag | He/she is out hunting (right now) |
-zhundo- is an easy affix to work with because it can be added to any root without changing its spelling.
| oathog + zhundo + rag | to depart + state + he/she |
| oathogzhundorag | he/she has departed; he/she is away |
When the past tense affix -thoag- is added before -zhundo- it gives the meaningof “ever”:
| Gundsosamik loqathoagzhundoful? | Have you ever seen a beardog? |
| Sosandusuglathoagzhundoful? | Have you ever eaten polar bear meat? |
…and if we put together -thoag- + -zhundo- + -njul-, we can express the idea of “never”:
| Gundsosamik loqathoagzhundonjullanjo | I have never seen a beardog |
| Sosandusuglathoagzhundonjullanjo | I have never eaten polar bear meat |
In English, when we want to give a reason for something, we add a clause to a sentence that usually begins with the word “because”:
We are leaving because we are tired.
In Obōzhū the clause that is underlined above is usually represented in one word. This word has a special ending that lets us know who we are talking about:
| osuragnjullanjo suogasnjayondo |
| I am not going out because I have a headache |
Here is a list of these endings:
| suogasnjayondo | because I have a headache |
| suogasnjayoful | because you have a headache |
| suogasnjandndol | because he/she has a headache |
| suogasnjayossaq | because we(2) have headaches |
| suogasnjayollo | because we(3+) have headaches |
| suogasnjayolzhuq | because you(2) have headaches |
| suogasnjayolzhu | because you(3+) have headaches |
| suogasnjandndoluq | because they(2) have headaches |
| suogasnjandndolo | because they(3+) have headaches |
Adding these affixes to stems ending in -q: * The first letter of the endings above that begin in y- change to q- * The endings above that begin with nd- do not change. They delete the final -q of the stem:
| safoq | to have a cold |
| safoqqondo | because I have a cold |
| safoqqoful | because you have a cold |
| safondndol | because he/she has a cold |
| safoqqossaq | because we(2) have colds |
| safoqqollo | because we(3+) have colds |
| safoqqolzhuq | because you(2) have colds |
| safoqqolzhu | because you(3+) have colds |
| safondndoluq | because they(2) have colds |
| safondndolo | because they(3+) have colds |
Adding these affixes to stems ending in -l: * The last letter of the root and the first letter of the affix both change to s-. * The endings that begin in nd- are unchanged. They delete the final -l of the root:
| luqul | to arrive |
| luqussondo | because I arrived |
| luqussoful | because you arrived |
| luqundndol | because he/she arrived |
| luqussossaq | because we(2) arrived |
| luqussollo | because we(3+) arrived |
| luqussolzhuq | because you(2) arrived |
| luqussolzhu | because you(3+) arrived |
| luqundndoluq | because they(2) arrived |
| luqundndolo | because they(3+) arrived |
Adding these affixes to roots ending in -g:
The last consonant of the stem is deleted and the affix begins with k:
| safoq + thoag | to have had a cold |
| safothoakondo | because I had a cold |
| safothoakoful | because you had a cold |
| safothoakndol | because he/she had a cold |
| safothoakossaq | because we(2) had a cold |
| safothoakollo | because we(3) had a cold |
| safothoakolzhuq | because you(2) had a cold |
| safothoakolzhu | because you(3+) had a cold |
| safothoakndoluq | because they(2) had a cold |
| safothoakndolo | because they(3+) had a cold |
Much like the English words “my, your, our,” etc., Obōzhū marks possession with a special affix depending on who is in possession of the object.
Also similar to English, possession and relations are normally said the same way. For example:
| rouqoqyo | my jacket |
| olо̄loyo | my father |
| gathulloul | your fur cloak |
| uksūl | your son (uksug + ul = uksuul, which becomes uksūl) |
Different affixes are used depending on whether the thing that is possessed is singular, dual or plural.
| uthayo | my house |
| uthaul | your house |
| uthanjo | his/her house |
| uthafaq | our(2) house |
| uthafal | our(3+) house |
| uthazhu | your(2+) house |
| uthanjol | their house |
For roots that end in vowels, the affixes stay the same, as above.
For roots that end in consonants, the last consonant is deleted:
| rouqoq | jacket |
| rouqoyo | my jacket |
| gundndug | dog |
| gundnduzhu | your (2+) dog |
| othoffuq | work place |
| othoffunjol | their work place |
-yo (my) has a second form, -ko, that is used after any stem ending in -g:
| sozhog | hat |
| sozhoko | my hat |
| gathulloarog | cloak |
| gathulloaroko | my cloak |
Use just -l (instead of -ul) to say “your” on rootsthat end in two vowels or on a long vowel:
| lau | shoulder |
| laul | your shoulder |
| guthaog | belt |
| guthaol | your belt |
| qondūq | two boots (ie. a pair of boots) |
| qondūqqoq | my two boots |
| qondūqquq | your(1) two boots |
| qondūnjuq | his/her two boots |
| qondufaq | our two boots |
| qonduzhuq | your(2+) two boots |
| qondunjuq | their two boots |
| baothal | mittens (3+) |
| baothaqqo | my mittens (3+) |
| baothalul | your(1) mittens (3+) |
| baothanjul | his/her mittens (3+) |
| baothafal | our mittens (3+) |
| baothazhu | your(2+) mittens (3+) |
| baothanjul | their mittens (3+) |
| Nduothu’s wagon | Bulo’s dogs |
| Nduothuab sasozhualnjo | Būloab gundndunjul |
If -ab is added to a root that ends in a consonant, it deletes the consonant:
| Soathog + ab | Soathoab gathunjo | Soathog’s lamp |
Remember that Obōzhū normally doesn’t have more than two vowels in a row, or a vowel following a long vowel. So, if you delete the final consonant and the root ends in two vowels, or ends in a long vowel, just add -b instead of -ab:
| gothasо̄g + ab | gothasо̄b uthakothо̄njo | the foreigner’s cabin |
-ab works for more than just names. It can be added to any noun, as long as it is singular:
| onjalup sozhonjo | the man’s hat |
| soroup qondunjug | the sister’s boots |
| gundndūp bobunjo | the dog’s tail |
To express the concepts of “mine”, “yours”, and “theirs” in Obōzhū, we take the possessive endings that we learned in the previous lesson and add the prefix bu-:
| Aso buyo | It’s mine |
| Aso būl | It’s yours |
| Aso bunjo | It’s his/hers |
| Aso bunjol | It’s theirs |
Dual forms (slightly irregular)
| Aqao būqqo | Those two things are mine |
| Aqao būqquq | Those two things are yours |
| Aqao bunjuq | Those two things are his/hers |
| Aqao bunjul | Those two things are theirs |
Plural forms
| Aqao buqqo | Those are mine |
| Aqao bulul | Those are yours |
| Aqao bunjul | Those are his |
| Aqao bunjul | Those are theirs |
Note: aqao bunjul has three possible translations above in English. Although this may seem confusing, the context of the conversation would make it clear.
In this lesson, we’ll review going toward, and coming from, as they are essential for expressing time in Obōzhū. Telling time is done in terms of the movement of time toward or away from either states of the sun or hours.
Recall the -ndāg- verb affix which means to “to go toward”.
| Bossundāglag | He goes to Bossu |
-ndūsnjо̄g- is the verb affix meaning “to be coming from”:
| niuvirvindūsnjо̄glag | He/she came from the store |
By putting together -ndūsnjо̄g- with the affix -thug- we put it in the present tense:
| qо̄bulakfuq + ndūsnjо̄g + thug + lag | qо̄bulakfundūsnjо̄thuglag | He/she is coming from the coffee shop |
We’ll now use these constructs to talk about the time:
Usaq people did not have the concept of regimented hours prior to the arrival of Humans on their continent, so traditionally they would have accounted for it by the position of the sun.
| saurandāglag | It is sunrise\ (literally: it is toward the appearance ) |
| suburandāglag | It is sunset\ (literally: it is toward the hiding) |
Anytime between sunrise and mid-morning, use -ndūsnjо̄thug- with the sunrise:
| saurandūsnjо̄thuglag | It is after sunrise\ (literally: it is coming from the appearance ) |
Anytime between mid-morning and noon, use -ndāthug- with the sun itself:
| zhugusug + ndāg + thug + lag | zhugusundāthuglag | it is going toward noon\ (literally: it is going toward the sun) |
Anytime between noon and mid-afternoon, use -ndūsnjо̄thug- with the sun:
| zhugusugndūsnjо̄thuglag | It is after noon\ (literally: it is coming from the sun) |
Anytime between mid-after and sunset, use -ndāthug- with the sunset:
| suburag + ndāg + thug + lag | suburandāthuglag | it is going toward sunset\ (literally: it is going toward the hiding) |
Night can be divided into two sections by referring to fire, as in the hearth fire that burns in the evening and dwindles to nothing during the night while everyone is asleep.
| ussag + ndāg + thug + lag | ussandāthuglag | it is going toward the fire |
Anytime between noon and mid-afternoon, use -ndūsnjо̄thug- with the sun:
| ussandūsnjо̄thuglag | It is after the fire\ (literally: it is coming from the fire) |
If you do not want to be specific you can also say:
| goarag | It is day |
| assaoglag | It is night |
Like the traditional way of keeping time, the modern system uses the concept going toward or away, except with the set hours of the day, instead of the state of the sun.
Note: The concept of hours and clock time is foreign to the Usaul, and so they use naturalizations of Empire numerals instead of the usual Obōzhū numbers:
TODO: Replace !!!! below with Usaq spellings of Empire words
| !!!! | one |
| !!!! | two |
| !!!! | three |
| !!!! | four |
| !!!! | five |
| !!!! | six |
| !!!! | seven |
| !!!! | eight |
| !!!! | nine |
| !!!! | ten |
| !!!! | eleven |
| !!!! | twelve |
| !!!!ndāglaq | It is 1 o’clock |
| !!!!ndāglaq | It is 2 o’clock |
Anytime between the beginning of the hour until half past the hour, use -ndūsnjо̄thug- with the hour that has just been past.
| !!!!ndūsnjо̄thuglag | It is after 1 |
| !!!!ndūsnjо̄thuglag | It is after 12 |
| !!!!ndūsnjо̄thuglag | It is after 2 |
When we get to half past the hour, we are now “on our way” towards the next hour. So we use the hour that is coming up with the affixes -ndāg- + -thug-. When they are put together, they indicate that someone is on their way somewhere but hasn’t reached their destination yet:
| !!!!ndāthuglag | It is approaching 2 |
| !!!!ndāthuglag | It is approaching 11 |
Note that when these three affixes are added to numbers that end in a consonant, they delete the final consonant:
| !!!!l | 12 o’clock |
| !!!!ndāthuglag | It is approaching 12 o’clock |
| !!!!ndāglag | It is 12 o’clock |
| !!!!ndūsnjо̄thuglag | It is after 12 o’clock |
Next, let’s look at the ending -gol, which is used to talk about events that will happen tomorrow or in the future:
| golzhundāggo? | !!!!ndāglaq |
| What time is it? | It is 1 o’clock |
| golzhundāggol? | !!!!ndāggol |
| At what time (will something be happening?) | At 1 o’clock |
As in the examples above, -gol can be used both to ask a question and to make a statement.
As for events in the past, we can use the ending -njol:
| golzhundārnjol? | At what time (did it happen)? |
| !!!!ndāknjol | at 2 o’clock |
| !!!!ndūsnjо̄thuknjol | after 2 o’clock |
| !!!!ndāthuknjol | before 2 o’clock |
You can see that -njol changes the final g of roots to k.
Similar to the habitual, Obōzhū has affixes that specify actions that happen often or regularly.
-fol- is added to verbs that end in a vowel. For verbs ending in a consonant, it changes to –bol–
| osu + fol + lag | osufollag | he/she goes out often |
| goalondо̄l | every day |
| ndoqullog | to play cards |
| ndoqullog + bol + lanjo | goalondо̄l ndoqullogbollanjo | I play cards every day |
-gollog- is a related affix that means more like “usually” than regularly or often. -gollog- is interchangeable with -fol- and -bol- in some Usaul dialects.
-gollog- can be added to verbs ending in vowels or consonants. When added to a root ending in a consonant, it deletes the final consonant:
| athо̄qqal | morning |
| assaqqal | evening |
| suku + gollog + lanjo | athо̄qqal sukugolloglanjo | I (usually) eat in the morning |
| ndugzhag + gollog + lag | assaqqal ndugzhagolloglag | She (usually) sews in the evening |
Recall that –qqal is an affix used to describe groups of people. It can also be used to describe someone’s household:
| Būlo + qqal | Būloqqal | Būlo’s place/household |
| Gorо̄g + qqal | Gorо̄qqal | Gorо̄g’s place/household |
Other affixes can follow –qqal:
| Gorо̄qqassu | at Gorо̄g’s place |
| Būlossal | to Būlo’s place |
| Gorо̄qqassūllag | he is at Gorо̄g’s place |
| Būlossāglanjo | I am going to Būlo’s place |
Now we’ll add an extra layer of complexity:
| osо̄so | mother |
| osо̄soqqalussu | at my mother’s place |
| osо̄soqqazhussu | at your mother’s place |
| bugolu | friend |
| bugoluqqallussu | at my friend’s place |
| bugoluqqalzhussu | at your friend’s place |
-lussu combines the idea of being somewhere with the possessive “my.”
-zhussu combines the idea of being somewhere with the possessive “your.”
Look at these two very common expressions:
| afollussu | at my place |
| uthuzhussu | at your place |
But there are many more possibilities here:
| afollussal | to my place/our place |
| uthuzhzhussal | to your place |
| afollussul | from my place/our place |
| uthuzhzhussul | from your place |
Or, if we want to talk in full sentences:
| osо̄soqqazhussāggul? | Are you going to your mother’s place? |
| osо̄soqqalussāglanjo | I am going to my mother’s place. |
| saqoqqazhussusnjо̄ggul? | Are you going to your younger sibling’s place? |
| saqoqqalussusnjо̄glanjo | I am coming from my younger sibling’s place. |
Some notes on birthdays.
| sothualurag | She has a birthday (that very day). |
| sothualuzhāg [Ndoundu]. | She has his/her birthday in [May]. |
You will remember the affix -zhāg (meaning “someone who does something regularly”) from such expressions as:
| undndathuzhāsyaful? | Do you take milk (with your coffee)? |
| undndathuazhāg | He/she takes milk. |
| obōzhūzhāsyafo? | Does he/she speak Obōzhū? |
| Ū, Obōzhūzhāg. | Yes, he/she speaks Obōzhū. |
Remember that when making a simple statement in the third person (he / she / it), -zhāg can appear, on its own, at the end of the word.
| [Zhulubukundu] sothualuzhāg. |
| His/her birthday is in [September]. |
In any other situation, you normally add the verb –a–/–nja– (meaning ‘to be’) after -zhāg followed by the appropriate ending:
| [Luzhubukundu] sothualuzhānjaful? | Is your birthday in [December]? |
| Ōyyo, sothualuzhānjaranjo [ūbakundu]. | No, my birthday is in [April]. |
| [Ndōlzhundu] sothualuzhānjafo? | Is his/her birthday in [March]? |
| Ū, [Ndōlzhundu] sothualuzhāg. | Yes, his/her birthday is in [March]. |
Let’s say we want to ask someone how old they are:
| golzhul? | how many? |
| golzhul + a + ful = golzhuaful? | How old are you\ (literally, how many are you?) |
| 30-suq + okkōya + gog + lanjo | 30-suq okkōyagoglanjo. | I have 30 years. |
Remember that when –gog– comes together with –laq–, we get the affix –thuq:
| Golzhuafo? | How old is he/she? |
| 24-suq okkōyathuq. | He/she has 24. |
If, on the day of someone’s birthday, we want to ask them how old they are turning, we use the affix -thug- to express something that is about to happen:
| Golzhusuq okkoyagothuggul? | How old are you turning (today)? |
| 8-suq okkōyagothuglanjo. | I am turning 8 (today). |
The affix -thoagzhundo- can be used in several ways:
When used as part of a statement, -thoagzhundo- indicates something that has happened a while ago.
| Ugothandualoathoagzhundoranjo. | I used to live in [Ugotha_link]. |
| Okkōsu, Quabondāthoagzhundoranjo. | Last year, I went to [Quabo_link]. |
It can be used as part of question to ask if a person has ever done something in the past:
| Gakthaglakndūthoagzhundoful? | Have you ever been to Qaythaqlaq? |
When used with the negative, it gives the meaning of “never”:
| Uyasoglathoagzhundosnjullal | They have never eaten [uyasog_link]. |
So far, we have been using simple endings with verbs:
| loqaranjo | I see. |
-ranjo indicates the subject of the sentence, or who does the seeing. It doesn’t indicate the object of the sentence, or what we see.
In English, if we want to talk about what we see, we would add a pronoun to the sentence to indicate an object:
| I see her. |
In Obōzhū, we use verb endings that indicate both the subject and the object of the sentence:
| Single Verb Ending | Double Verb Ending |
|---|---|
| loqaranjo | loqaroko |
| I see | I see her |
| ndothuqlanjo | ndothuqloqqo |
| I follow | I follow them |
| lazhōrag | lazhōrōlul |
| He/she hears | He/she hears you |
Here are the simplest forms of these affixes:
| me | you | him/her/it | |
|---|---|---|---|
| I | loqaroyul/loqayuqqul\ I see you. | loqaroko\ I see him. | |
| you | loqarokndo/loqayusnjo\ You see me. | loqaroul\ You see him. | |
| he/she | loqarōnjo/loqayōnjo\ He/she sees me. | loqarōlul/loqayōlul\ He/she sees you. | loqaronjo\ He/she sees him/her. |
The basic form of these affixes begins with a r- when added to a root that ends in a vowel. If these affixes are added to roots that end in a consonant, the -r changes to l-:
| ndothuqloko | I am following him/her |
| uqoraglōnjo | He/she helps me |
In an earlier lesson, we introduced verb endings that involve both a subject and an object:
| loqaroko | goarundorōnjo |
| I see him/her | He/she knows me |
These are used to make simple statements. There are a corresponding set of affixes that are used to ask questions that indicate a subject and an object:
| goarundofoyul? | Do I know you? |
| goarundofoko? | Do I know him/her? |
| laquzhufusnjo? | Do you understand me? |
| laquzhufuaq? | Do you understand him/her? |
| lazhōfōnjo? | Does he/she hear me? |
| lazhōfōlul? | Does he/she hear you? |
| lazhōfoaq? | Does he/she hear him/her? |
If these affixes are added to a root ending in a vowel, they begin with the letter f:
| loqafuaq? | Do you see him/her? |
If these affixes are added to a root ending in -g, they begin with the letter g:
| uqoragguaq? | Are you helping him/her? |
If they are added to a root ending in any other consonant, they switch the final consonant to -b and then begin with b-:
| ndothubbuaq? | Are you following him/her? |
This very common affix is attached to a verb to indicate someone or some people who do something with someone else:
| bu + golu = bugolu | friend |
| uthussuogolu | classmate |
| uggosuorogolu | coworker |
-golu is often followed by the verb -yu- meaning to have, which is in turn followed by a double person ending:
| Zhazhu uthussuogoluyuroko | I have Zhazhu as a classmate |
| ndugzhagoluyuronjo | She sews with her |
-golu- + -yu- can also be put in the dual or plural to form a word that can stand on its own:
| ndandugoluyūq | two people dancing together |
| sukugoluyūl | 3+ people eating together |
Remember that double person endings are the most common way to relate one person or object to another. Notice how differently Obōzhū and English build the following sentences:
| Qolundogoluyurassoggusnjo? | Can you meet with me? |
| Loufulu uggosourogoluyufuaq? | Do you have Loufulu as a coworker? |
There are different ways to ask someone to do something
Either The verb -rassog- / -yassog- / -kassog-
This common affix is used to express the idea of being able to do something. It changes depending on the last letter of the root that it is added to:
| agōtho | to call |
| Būlondal agōthorassoggul? | Can you call Būlo? |
| lūthuag | to make tea |
| lūthuakassoggul | Could you make some tea? |
Or, the affix -ga
-ga- is an affix used to express the idea of wanting, asking or telling someone else to do something. It is folllowed by a double person ending.
| osugaronjo | He asks her to leave |
| uzhugayaq | Tell him to come in |
| agōthogafuaq? | Do you want him/her to call you? |
More complex example:
| Afossal agōthogarassogguaq? | Can you have him/her call me? |
When -ga- is added to a stem that ends in a consonant, it deletes the final consonant:
| zhusuq | to sleep |
| zhusugafoyul | I want you to sleep |
| agōthofuyurōnjo | He/she calls me. |
| lulukokfuyuronjo | He/she writes to him |
To build these phrases:
First: Begin with the basic verb:
| agōtho | to call |
| lulukog | to write |
Second: Add the affix –fuq. This is normally used to indicate a place. When it is added to agōtho- or lulukog- it means the person who is being called or written to.
Third: Add the affix –yu. It will delete the final -q in -fuq:
| agōtho + fuq + yu = | agōthofuyu- |
| lulukog + fuq + yu = | lulukokfuyu- |
Fourth: Add the transitive ending to indicate who is calling/writing and who is being called or written to:
| agōthofuyufuaq? | Are you calling him/her? |
| agōthofuyuroko | I am calling him/her. |
| ubbolzhog agōthofuyuthoaglōlul. | He/she called you yesterday. |
| lulukokfuyufoaq? | Is he/she writing to him/her? |
| lulukokfuyuronjo | He/she is writing to him/her. |
Many of the verbs that describe emotions follow a similar pattern.
First, there is a basic form used to describe the emotion someone is feeling:
| gafuozhallanjo | I am happy |
For the basic form we take the root of the verb, and in many cases, add the affix -zhal- followed by the simple verb endings:
| qobbuo | to be afraid |
| qobbuozhallāq | The two of them are afraid. |
| gafuo | to feel happy |
| gafuozhabbul? | Are you happy? |
Next, there is a more complex form of these verbs that describes who or what is causing that emotion:
| qobbuoyuroko | I am afraid of him/her |
For the more complex form, the affix -yu- / -ku- is added to the root verb, followed by a double person ending:
| uthukoyurōluyal | He/she is intimidated by us. |
| qobbuoyufuaq? | Are you afraid of it? |
| buayuroko | I like it. |
Note that -ku- is used after verb roots that end in -g:
| ndondoglag | it tastes good |
| ndondokuronjo | It tastes good to her. |
Obōzhū has a series of endings to talk about events that have not yet happened:
| Agōthoyaful, gouthonjoranjo. | If/when you call, I will come. |
Depending on the context, these endings can be translated in English as “when something happens…” or “if something happens…”
Obōzhū does not make this distinction. Instead, these endings convey the idea that the events that they describe are not real because they have yet to take place.
| agōtho | [to call someone][Link to article about Usaq message passing system] |
| agōthoyando | if/when I call |
| agōthoyaful | if/when you call |
| agōthoyasu* | if/when he/she calls |
| agōthobbol | if/when he/she calls |
| agōthoyassaq | if/when the two of us call |
| agōthoyallo | if/when we (3+) call |
| agōthoyalzhuq | if/when two of you call |
| agōthoyalzhu | if/when you (3+) call |
| agōthoyaluq* | if/when they (2+) call |
| agōthobbolo | if/when they (2+) call |
Two of the above endings start with b-, the others start with y-. This is important because they behave differently as we will see below.
| Gouyasu, ndandukuokassoksuoglag. | If she comes, she will be able to go dancing. |
This sentence only works if the person who is coming is the same person who will be able to go dancing.
If we want to refer to a different person:
| Uthuzhobū goubbol, oulo ndandukuokassoksuoglag. | If Uthuzhobū comes, Oulo will be able to go dancing. |
Adding these affixes to roots ending in -g:
The basic endings that begin with y- change to k-. The last consonant of the root is deleted:
| Sollukaful, sukulzhuoksuoglayal. | If you get a seal, we will eat well. |
| Gafuosothōknduraothaq ondndāndorruothukallo. | It will be a lot of fun if/when we go clam digging. |
The basic endings that begin with b- change to g-.
| Osusuoglanjo 11-ndūsnjōthuggol. | I will go out after 11. |
| Burokūggolo, gouthonjoral. | If/when they are finished, they will come. |
Adding these affixes to roots ending in -l:
The basic endings that begin with y- change to q-. The last consonant of the root also changes to -q:
| Luquqqandosuafukfundndāksuoglanjo. | If/when I arrive, I will go to the market. |
The basic endings that begin with -b are unchanged. They delete the last consonant of the root:
| Oathothōglayal athubbol. | We will depart when the tide is high. |
Obōzhū speakers are precise when talking about where things are located. There is a long list of locations to master. The first thing to remember is that there are different words to indicate a person or objects is in a specific spot versus a general area:
| afosu | (right) here |
| ndōsu | in this area |
| uqosu | over there (specific spot) |
| ofosu | over there (general area) |
| buqosu | up there (specific spot) |
| bōsu | up there (general area) |
| qososu | down there (specific spot) |
| asosu | down there (general area) |
There are no set rules that will help you to decide when to use one term over the other. A lot depends on context. For example, both afosu / ndōsu could refer to very large areas:
| afosu | right here (in Ugotha, a city) |
| ndōsu | here (in Sasofal, the entire Usaq territory) |
or they could each refer to much smaller spaces:
| afosu | right here in this spot |
| ndōsu | in this building |
The best advice is to learn these terms as pairs and then listen carefully to fluent speakers to hear how they are used in conversation.
These locational words will often be heard with the prefix lo- which indicates that a location has already been mentioned or implied in the conversation:
| afosu | lofosu(*) | (right) here |
| ndōsu | londōsu | in this area |
| uqosu | louqosu | over there (specific spot) |
| ofosu | loofosu | over there (general area) |
| buqosu | lobuqosu | up there (specific spot) |
| bōsu | lobōsu | up there (general area) |
| qososu | loqososu | down there (specific spot) |
| qososu | loqososu | down there (general area) |
(*)Pay attention to this word as it does not follow the same pattern as the others. In the other words, lo- is added directly to the simple form, with no change in spelling.
The next level of complexity is that these terms are also used to describe motion. For this lesson, we will just look at how these words can be used to describe motion towards a place. If you refer to the terms listed above, you will notice that they all end with the affix -su, meaning that the person/object described is in or at a place.
To talk about motion towards a specific spot we replace the -su ending with -anjo:
| loffanjo | to here (specific spot) |
| londoanjo | to here (more general area) |
| lōfanjo | to there (specific spot) |
| louqanjo | to there (more general area) |
| lobbuqanjo | up to there (specific spot) |
| lobboanjo | up there (general area) |
| loqosanjo | down to there (specific spot) |
| loasanjo | down to there (more general area) |
| Būlo uthāb zhosuosūllag. | Būlo is beside the house. |
Let’s break it down:
First: There is the subject of the sentence. In this case it is Būlo. Nothing special happens to the subject. We can change the subject and have a very similar sentence:
| Gundndug illuup sanianiittuq. | The dog is beside the house. |
Second: There is the object that the subject is positioned around. In our sentence, it is utha or house. If this object is singular, it takes the ending –ab. Remember that –ab deletes final consonants:
| gorog + ab = | goroab |
| Būlo goroab zhosuosūllag. | Būlo is beside the row boat |
Third: There is the element that tells us where the subject is located:
| Būlo uthāb zhosuosūllag. |
zhosuo literally means, ‘its side’, in this case ‘the side of the house’. By inserting different words here, we can change the location we are talking about:
| zhosuo | the side of… |
| gathō | the area above… |
| gōnjo | the top of… |
| olō | the underside of… |
| zhufakō | the front of… |
| anjolō | the far side of… |
| lasao | the back of… |
Fourth: There is the verb –sūl:
| Būlo uthāb zhosuosūllag. |
–sūl is a close relative of the affix –ndūl meaning to be at or in something:
| Būlo sondūbbo? | Where is Būlo? |
| uthandūllag. | He is in the house. |
| uthāb zhosuosūllag. | He is beside the house. |
Fifth: There is the verb ending. The verb ending must always match the subject of the sentence:
| Būlo uthāb zhosuosūllag. | Būlo is beside the house. |
| Gundndūq uthāb zhosuosūllāq. | The two dogs are beside the house. |
| Lundnduol uthāb zhosuosūllal. | The (3+) birds are beside the house. |
We could also say:
| anduob zhosuosūllanjo. | I am beside the boat. |
| sasozhualuab gōnjosūllalul. | You are on top of the car. |
| uthāb lasaosūllayaq. | We (2) are behind the house. |
Obōzhū has different ways to describe people or things. The first is through words like these:
| loqurag | (someone/something) tall |
| agandoullag | (someone/something) heavy |
| oqularag | (someone/something) expensive |
| oququllag | (someone/something) inexpensive |
| buarag | (someone/something) good |
In some ways these words behave like verbs. Depending on the context they could be translated like this:
| loqurag | He/she/it is tall |
| onjurag | He/she/it is big |
| oqularag | He/she/it is expensive |
| oququllag | He/she/it is cheap |
| buarag | He/she/it is good |
In Obōzhū, these descriptive words must reflect the number and grammar of the word that they describe. You’ll notice that many descriptive words end with the –rag ending in the singular. This ending changes if you are describing an object that is in the dual or the plural:
| gokozhoarog oqularag. | The counting loop is expensive. |
| gokozhoarog oqularāq. | The two counting loops are expensive. |
| gokozhoarog oqularal. | The counting loops (3+) are expensive. |
Some of the above words could be used to describe you or me, but then we would need to add the verb -a- plus the appropriate subject ending:
| loqurag + a + ralul = | loqurāralul | You are tall |
| loqurag + a + ranjo = | loqurāranjo | I am tall |
When these words describe a person or thing ending in -nduq, they also have to take -nduq:
| gondaloarog agandoullag | The sled is heavy |
| gondaloaroknduq agandoullanduq | a heavy sled |
Note that when using -nduq with descriptive words (including colors), the final consonant of the descriptive word is normally deleted, rather than switched to k or another consonant.
| anduog + nduq = anduoknduq | a boat |
| oaboglag + nduq = oaboglanduq | red |
| anduoknduq oaboglanduq | a red boat |
Also, keep in mind that Obōzhū speakers use many affixes that are attached directly to the nouns that they describe:
| uthagboq | the big house |
| sasozhualugboq | the big van |
| uthakothōg | the small house / cabin |
| sasozhualukothōg | the small van |
| onjaluqalōg | the tall man |
| onjaluqothoq | the short man |
| zhutholluofoq | good weather |
| usalluofoq | a good person |
| usalluofoaralul | You are a good person. |
Below are a series of opposites that can be used to contrast different objects or people:
| loqurag | tall / long |
| soullag | short |
| lulukoal loqurag. | The pencil is long. |
| lulukoal soullag. | The pencil is short. |
| āsoglag | hot |
| suthusoglag | cold |
| qōbu āsoglag. | The coffee is hot. |
| undug suthusoglag. | The water is cold. |
| onjurag | big |
| nduqurag | small |
| ndothuyothuakfuq onjurag. | The [Legislative Assembly] is big. |
| thūsob uthanjo nduqurag. | Thūso’s house is small. |
| oqularag | expensive |
| oququllag | inexpensive |
| gokozhoarog oqularag. | The counting loop is expensive |
| ufotha oququllag. | The thread is inexpensive |
| onduzhal | many / lots of |
| gollūssoul | few |
| qūsoarol onduzhal | lots of money |
| aozhol gollūssoul | a few bones |
To compare people or things in English, we use two affixes that we add directly to an adjective:
| tall |
| taller |
| tallest |
In Obōzhū, you do more or less the same thing:
| loqurag | tall |
| loqusugzhog | taller |
| loquthōg | tallest |
| onjurag | big |
| onjusugzhog | bigger |
| onjuthōg | biggest |
Note that the ending –rag / -lag is dropped from the basic form of the adjective before adding -sugzhog or -thōg.
When -sugzhog is added to a stem ending in -l, it changes the final l to s:
| soullag | short |
| soussugzhog | shorter |
When –thōg is added to a stem ending in a consonant, it deletes the final consonant:
| soullag | short |
| southōg | shortest |
In a full sentence, we normally would follow the words above with the verb -a / -nja (to be) and the subject ending:
| onjuthōnjarag | It is the biggest |
| onjuthōnjaranjo | I am the biggest |
To make a comparison, we then tack on the affix -ndul to the person or thing to which a comparison is being made:
| Uthuzhobundul loqusugzhoaranjo. | I am taller than Uthuzhobu |
| ondokag gundndukndul onjusugzhog. | The wolf is bigger than the dog. |
Note that in the last sentence above, when comparing an object in the third person, you have the option of dropping the -arag ending. The context makes the meaning of the sentence clear.
Keep in mind that when using personal pronouns to make comparisons, they don’t follow a regular pattern:
| afonjo | me |
| afossul | than me |
| afossul loqusugzhoaralul. | You are taller than me |
| ufful | you |
| uthussul | than you |
| qusothu uthussul loqusugzhoafo? | And who is taller than you? |
| uthuzhzhuq | the two of you |
| uthuzhzhussul | than the two of you |
| uthuzhzhussul soussugzhoarayaq. | We two are shorter than the two of you. |
Obōzhū has a series of endings for asking questions in the negative:
| laquzhuful? | Do you understand? |
| laquzhusnjutholul? | Don’t you understand? |
Negative questions have their own special endings. Here is a partial list of these affixes:
| gou | to come |
| gousnjuthonjo? | Am I not coming? |
| gousnjutholul? | Are you not coming? |
| gousnjuthog? | Is he not coming? |
| gousnjuthoyaq? | Are the two of us not coming? |
| gousnjuthozhuq? | Are the two of you not coming? |
| gousnjuthōq? | Are the two of them not coming? |
| gousnjuthoyal? | Are we (3+) not coming? |
| gousnjuthozhu? | Are you (3+) not coming? |
| gousnjuthol? | Are they (3+) not coming? |
Watch out for the fact that Obōzhū speakers answer these negative questions in a way that is opposite to what is done in English.
| athandu uggosourosnjutholul? | Aren’t you working today? / Are you not working today? |
| ū, athandu uggosourosnjullanjo. | Yes, I am not working today |
| ōyyo, uggosouroglanjo. | No, I am (in fact) working today |
In Obōzhū, as in English, we often describe two actions that are happening at the same time:
| I ate as I walked. |
| While he was reading, he fell asleep |
In English, we indicate that two actions are happening at the same time by putting a conjunction (as, while, when, etc.) before one of them.
In Obōzhū, instead of using a conjunction, we use a special ending on one of the verbs to indicate that it is happening (or happened) at the same time as the other verb in the sentence:
| buzhathoaglanjo sukuthanjo. | I walked as I ate |
| agothundōglasu zhusuthuthoaglag | While he was reading, he fell asleep. |
Here is a list of these “conjunctive” verb endings that can be added to roots ending in vowels:
| sukuthanjo | while I was eating… |
| sukuthalul | while you were eating … |
| sukuthasu | while he was eating … |
| sukuthasaq | while the two of us were eating … |
| sukuthalo | while we (3+) were eating … |
| sukuthazhuq | while the two of you were eating… |
| sukuthazhu | while you (3+) were eating … |
| sukuthaluq | while the two of them were eating … |
| sukuthaluq | while they (3+) were eating … |
Remember that when you come across one of these verb endings it means that the action being described is happening at the same time as the other action in the sentence.
The affixes above are used with verbs that end in a vowel. When working with a verb that ends in a consonant, the beginning of the affix changes from th to l:
| agog | to speak |
| agoglanjo | while I was speaking … |
| agoglalul | while you were speaking … |
| agoglasu | while he was speaking … |
| agoglasaq | while the two of us were speaking … |
| agoglalo | while we (3+) were speaking … |
| agoglazhu | while you (3+) were speaking … |
| agoglaluq | While the two of them were speaking … |
| agoglaluq | While they (3+) were speaking … |
Important: The above endings are used when the two actions that appear in a sentence are performed by the same person.
| buzhaqlasu luqullag. | He arrived walking (He arrived on foot). |
| uzhuglaluq uraqqothoaglal. | As they were coming in, they fell. |
If we want to describe two actions that happened at the same time but that were performed by different people we add -lu- before the conjunctive ending:
| agogluthalul zhusuthoaglal. | While you were speaking they fell asleep. |
| oathogzhundoluthalo zhathoaggul? | When we were away, what did you do? |
The -lu- ending can be directly added to a root ending in a verb or a consonant without affecting the spelling.
There is one form of this verb ending that is irregular: -thasu becomes -luthaya
| sukuluthaya ndugzhathoaglag. | While he ate she sewed. |
The -luthaya ending is especially useful for describing what the weather was doing or what time it was when something else happened:
| zhuthothalluthaya oathothoaglanjo. | It was raining when I departed. |
| bugzhugluthaya luqullayal. | It was blizzarding when we arrived. |
| 9-ndūsnjōgluthaya laboggoaralul. | It was after nine when you woke up. |
The verb endings -thaya, -thayuq and -thayul can be used to give a command that involves a person or object other than the person you are speaking to:
| obuku + thaya | obukuthaya! | Ask him/her! |
| obuku + thayuq | obukuthayuq! | Ask the two of them! |
| obuku + thayul | obukuthayul! | Ask them! |
When these endings are added to stems ending in -g, they change final -g to -k:
| ndolaug + thaya | ndolaukthaya! | Open it! |
| uqorag + thayuq | uqorakthayuq! | Help them (2)! |
| solzhog + thayul | solzhokthayul! | Bring them (3+) along! |
The passive voice is used in Obōzhū (and in English) when we want to express that something is happening to someone, or they are at the receiving end of a particular action.
| Active voice | |
|---|---|
| Nduothuab Zhunduasu loqaronjo | Nduothu sees Zhunduasu |
| Passive Voice | |
| Zhunduasu loqaroarag. | Zhunduasu is seen |
To make verbs in the passive voice in Obōzhū, one adds the affix -roa-/-loa- right after the verb root. -roa- is used after roots ending in vowels, and -loa- after roots ending in consonants.
| uqoarag | to help |
| uqoragloarag | He/she is being helped. |
| uqoragloarandoful? | Do you want some help (literally, ‘do you want to be helped?’) |
| uqoragloarandoranjo. | I’d like some help; Can you help me? (literally, ‘I want to be helped.’) |
Other Examples:
| gou+ga+rōlul = | gougarōlul | She wants you to come; She has invited you |
| gou+ga+roa+ralul = | gougaroaralul | You are invited. |
| ou+suog+loko = | ousuogloko | I will pick her up. |
| ou+roa+rando+yaful | ouroarandoranjo | I want to be picked up. |
-roa-/-loa- is used to make verbs in the passive voice. -arrog- is a related affix used to make nouns in the passive voice:
| agog + arrog = | agoarrog | someone who is spoken to |
It is more likely that you will see these used in complete sentence:
| oathog + arrog = | oathoarrog | someone who is taken out on the land |
| oathog + arrog + a + rayal = | oathoarroarayal | We are being taken out on the land. |
| oathog + arrog + a + rando + yondo = | oathoarroarandoyondo | (because) I would like to be taken out on the land. |
| obal + arrog = | obarrog | someone who has been snowed in |
| obal + arrog + a + ral = | obarroaral | They are snowed in. |
| lusul + lag = | lusullag | the tide goes out / drops |
| lusul + arrog + a + rag = | lusarroarag | It has been beached at low tide. |
There are ways of expressing two or even three levels of relationships within the same sentence, i.e. when the possessor has its own possessor:
| osōso + yo = | osōsoyo | my mother |
| osōso + ndo = | osōsondo osunjo | my mother’s brother |
The -ndo ending relates the word osōso back to me, but it also relates her to another person, in this case her brother. The word that describes the second level of relationship (her brother) takes the ending -njo.
The same endings can be used to describe objects that are owned by that person, except that we add -njolo to the person or thing that is in the middle of this double possession relationship:
| Zhunduasuab sasozhualunjo | Zhunduas’s van |
| Zhunduasuab sasozhualunjolo qūnjo | Zhunduas’s van key |
ū The plural form of the –njolo ending highlighted above is –njulo:
| osōsondo saqonjul | my mother’s younger sisters |
| osōsondo saqonjulo athanjul | the knives of my mother’s younger sisters |
The following table sets out all the possible variations of this type of ending:
| -ndo | ||
| V(owel) | osōsondo osunjo | my mother’s brother |
| C(onsonant) | saqokndo anduonjo | my younger sibling’s boat |
| -ful | ||
| V | osōsoful osunjo | your (1) mother’s brother |
| C | saqogbul anduonjo | your (1) younger sibling’s boat |
| -njolo | ||
| V | osōsonjolo osunjo | his/her mother’s brother |
| C | saqonjolo anduonjo | the boat of his/her younger sibling |
| -llo | ||
| V | osōsollo osunjo | the brother of our (2) mother |
| C | saqollo anduonjo | the boat of our (2) younger sibling |
| -zhzhuq | ||
| V | osōsozhzhuq osunjo | the brother of your (2) mother |
| C | saqozhzhuq anduonjo | the boat of your (2) younger sibling |
| -njollo | ||
| V | osōsonjollo osunjo | the brother of their (2) mother |
| C | saqonjollo anduonjo | the boat of their (1) younger sibling |
| -llo | ||
| V | osōsollo osunjo | the brother of your (3+) mother |
| C | saqollo anduonjo | the boat of our (3+) younger sibling |
| -zhzhu | ||
| V | osōsozhzhu osunjo | the brother of your (3+) mother |
| C | saqozhzhu anduonjo | the boat of your (3+) younger sibling |
| -njolo | ||
| V | osōsonjolo osunjo | the brother of their (3+) mother |
| C | saqonjolo anduonjo | the boat of their (3+) younger sibling |
| -njulo | ||
| V | osōsonjulo osunjo | the brothers of their (3+) mother |
| C | saqonjulo anduonjo | the boats of their (3+) younger sibling |